Chapter 1 What Is Psychology

Introduction

Psychology is a discipline that delves into the profound questions of human nature. It seeks to understand why we think, feel, and act the way we do. From exploring the motivations behind acts of immense kindness and heroism, like Major HPS Ahluwalia's ascent of Mt. Everest despite being paralysed, to understanding the roots of conflict and tragedy, like the 9/11 attacks, psychology addresses the full spectrum of human experience.

This field of knowledge aims to contribute to human well-being by improving our understanding of ourselves and others. Unlike many other sciences, psychology has the unique challenge and advantage of studying processes—like thoughts and feelings—that are largely internal and directly accessible only to the individual experiencing them. The discipline attempts to unravel these complex phenomena, from the micro-level of an individual's consciousness to the macro-level of group behaviour, in a systematic and scientific manner.

What Is Psychology

Historically, the term "psychology" originated from two Greek words: psyche (meaning soul) and logos (meaning science or study). Initially, it was considered the study of the soul or mind. Over time, the discipline has evolved into a scientific field focused on understanding human processes.

Formally, psychology is defined as a science which studies mental processes, experiences and behaviour in different contexts. It employs systematic methods from both biological and social sciences to gather and organize knowledge. Let's break down the three key components of this definition:

1. Mental Processes: These are the internal activities of the mind, such as thinking, remembering, learning, perceiving, and problem-solving. While these processes are linked to brain activity, they are not identical to it. The mind does not have a physical location like the brain; it is an emergent system of consciousness that develops through our interactions with the world. Psychologists study these processes to understand how the mind functions and to help individuals use their mental capacities more effectively.
2. Experiences: Experiences are inherently subjective. They are the personal states of awareness or consciousness that only the experiencing individual can know directly. The nature of an experience is influenced by both internal states and external conditions. For example, the discomfort of a crowded bus ride can be mitigated by the pleasant company of friends. Psychology explores a wide range of experiences, from the pain felt by a terminally ill patient to the positive feelings of a romantic encounter.
3. Behaviours: These are the observable responses or activities we engage in. Behaviours can be:
   • Simple or Complex: Ranging from a simple reflex like blinking to the complex act of playing chess.
   • Overt or Covert: Overt behaviours are outwardly visible (e.g., running from a tiger). Covert behaviours are internal and hidden from an outside observer (e.g., the subtle twitch of hand muscles while thinking about a chess move).

   All behaviours are triggered by a stimulus, which can be either external (an object or event in the environment) or internal (a thought or feeling).

Psychology As A Discipline

As a discipline, psychology aims to understand and explain behaviour, experience, and mental processes in a systematic and verifiable way, while minimizing personal biases. It has a unique dual identity, with two parallel streams that categorize it as both a natural science and a social science.

• One stream approaches psychology with the methods of physical and biological sciences, focusing on discovering objective cause-and-effect relationships to predict and control behaviour.
• The other stream uses the methods of social and cultural sciences, explaining behaviour as an interaction between a person and their socio-cultural context, acknowledging that behaviour often has multiple, complex causes.

Psychology As A Natural Science

Modern psychology's development as a science has been heavily influenced by philosophy and physics. This stream of psychology emphasizes objectivity, which is achieved through consensus on definitions and measurable concepts. It largely follows the hypothetico-deductive model of scientific inquiry:

1. A theory is proposed as a set of statements to explain a complex phenomenon.
2. A testable hypothesis (a tentative explanation) is deduced from the theory.
3. The hypothesis is tested through controlled experiments and systematic data collection.
4. Based on the results, the theory is either supported or revised.

Using this rigorous model, psychologists have developed theories of learning, memory, perception, and emotion. This approach has also been influenced by the evolutionary perspective from biology, which helps explain instinctual behaviours like attachment and aggression.

Psychology As A Social Science

Psychology is widely recognized as a social science because it studies human beings within their social and cultural contexts. This perspective acknowledges that humans are not just influenced by their environment but also actively create it.

As a social science, psychology focuses on the individual and the community in relation to their socio-cultural and physical environment. The story of Ranjita and Shabnam illustrates this perfectly: two girls from the same village grow up to be very different people due to their distinct family structures and social conditions. Yet, a crisis like a flood brings the community together, showing how social context can shape behaviour. This stream of psychology recognizes that human behaviour is complex and often has multiple causes, making it difficult to predict with absolute certainty.

Understanding Mind And Behaviour

For a long time, the "mind" was a taboo topic in scientific psychology because it couldn't be physically located or defined in concrete terms. However, thanks to the work of neuroscientists and physicists, the concept of the mind has regained its respectability.

Mind vs. Brain: The mind and the brain are deeply connected, but they are not the same entity. The brain is the physical organ, while the mind is an emergent entity that is responsible for consciousness and mental processes. Evidence for this distinction comes from fascinating cases:

• Patients with parts of their visual brain removed who can still correctly respond to visual cues.
• Amputees who continue to feel a "phantom limb" and its movements.
• Brain-injured patients who fail to recognize their own family members, believing them to be "imposters."

In each case, while the brain was damaged, the "mind" and its sense of self remained intact. Recent studies in disciplines like Psychoneuroimmunology have demonstrated a powerful mind-body connection, showing that mental processes like positive visualization can bring about significant changes in bodily functions and even strengthen the immune system.

Popular Notions About The Discipline Of Psychology

In our daily lives, we often act as amateur psychologists, trying to explain people's behaviour based on our own "common sense" theories. However, these popular notions are often unreliable and unscientific.

Common sense explanations are frequently based on hindsight and can be contradictory. For instance, to explain what happens to attraction when a friend moves away, we have two opposing sayings: "Out of sight, out of mind" and "Distance makes the heart grow fonder." We tend to pick the one that fits the situation after it has already occurred.

Scientific psychology differs from common sense in a crucial way: it seeks to find patterns that allow for prediction, not just post-hoc explanation.

Psychological research often contradicts common sense. For example, a study by Dweck (1975) found that children who experienced some failure and were taught to attribute it to a lack of effort became more resilient than children who were only given easy problems and always succeeded. This runs counter to the common sense belief that continuous success builds confidence. Psychology systematically tests such propositions with data, distinguishing it from astrology or palm reading.

Evolution Of Psychology

Modern psychology has a relatively short history, emerging from its philosophical roots in the late 19th century. Its evolution is marked by the rise and fall of several major schools of thought.

Development Of Psychology In India

While ancient Indian philosophical traditions are rich with insights into mental processes and consciousness, the development of modern psychology in India has been largely dominated by Western models.

The formal beginning of modern psychology in India was at Calcutta University, where the first psychology lab was established in 1915, followed by the first Department of Psychology in 1916. The discipline's growth in India can be traced through four phases, as described by Durganand Sinha:

1. Phase 1 (Pre-Independence): Psychology in India mirrored Western developments, with a focus on experimental and psychoanalytic research.
2. Phase 2 (Post-Independence to 1960s): The discipline expanded into various branches, with an effort to apply Western psychological principles to the Indian context.
3. Phase 3 (Post-1960s): There was a significant shift towards problem-oriented research, with psychologists focusing on addressing the specific problems of Indian society.
4. Phase 4 (Late 1970s onwards): This phase marked the beginning of indigenisation. Indian psychologists stressed the need for frameworks and approaches that were culturally and socially relevant to India, moving away from a complete dependence on Western psychology.

Today, psychology in India is becoming more contextual and is being applied in diverse professional areas, making significant contributions to the global field.

Branches Of Psychology

Over the years, psychology has diversified into numerous specialized fields. Some of the major branches include:

• Cognitive Psychology: Studies mental processes like attention, perception, memory, problem-solving, and language.
• Biological Psychology: Focuses on the relationship between behaviour and the physical systems of the body, including the brain, nervous system, and genetics.
• Neuropsychology: An interdisciplinary field with neuroscience that studies the role of the brain and neurotransmitters in mental functions.
• Developmental Psychology: Studies the physical, social, and psychological changes that occur throughout a person's life span.
• Social Psychology: Explores how individuals are affected by their social environments, studying topics like attitudes, prejudice, and interpersonal attraction.
• Cross-cultural and Cultural Psychology: Examines the role of culture in shaping behaviour, thought, and emotion.
• Environmental Psychology: Studies the interaction between physical environmental factors (like pollution, temperature) and human behaviour.
• Health Psychology: Focuses on how psychological factors influence the development, prevention, and treatment of illness.
• Clinical and Counselling Psychology: Deals with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of psychological disorders. Counselling psychology typically handles less severe problems related to daily living.
• Industrial/Organisational Psychology: Applies psychological principles to the workplace, focusing on issues like employee training, work conditions, and productivity.
• Educational Psychology: Studies how people learn and helps develop effective instructional methods and materials.
• Sports Psychology: Applies psychological principles to improve athletic performance, often by enhancing motivation and managing performance anxiety.

Themes Of Research And Applications

The work of psychologists is guided by several core themes that provide direction to both research and application.

1. Psychology attempts to develop principles of behaviour and mental processes. Like any science, a primary goal of basic psychology is to understand and explain phenomena by developing general principles and theories supported by empirical data.
2. Human behaviour is a function of the attributes of persons and environment. This theme, encapsulated by Kurt Lewin's equation B = f(P,E), acknowledges that behaviour is a product of the interaction between an individual's unique attributes (intelligence, personality) and their perceived environment.
3. Human behaviour is caused. Psychology operates on the assumption that behaviour is not random but has causes, which can be internal or external. It recognizes that behaviour has multiple, interdependent causes rather than a single linear one.
4. Understanding of human behaviour is culturally constructed. This modern theme critiques the assumption that psychological theories developed in Euro-American contexts are universally applicable. It calls for an understanding that is sensitive to different cultural and social settings.
5. Human behaviour can be controlled and modified through the application of psychological principles. This theme represents the applied side of psychology. The knowledge generated through research is used to develop interventions and techniques to improve the quality of human life and solve real-world problems.

Basic vs Applied Psychology

The distinction between basic (research-oriented) and applied (problem-solving) psychology is not a rigid one. The two are highly interrelated and mutually reinforcing. Basic research provides the theories and principles that form the foundation for applied psychology. In turn, the challenges faced in applied settings provide rich contexts for testing, refining, and developing new theories. In reality, almost all psychology has the potential for application.

Psychology And Other Disciplines

Psychology's focus on human functioning places it at the intersection of many fields of knowledge, leading to a fruitful interdisciplinary approach.

• Philosophy: Psychology emerged from philosophy, and it continues to draw from philosophical discussions on the nature of mind, knowledge, and human existence.
• Medicine: The strong mind-body connection is recognized in medicine. Psychologists work in hospitals to help patients manage stress, adhere to treatments, and cope with illnesses like cancer and AIDS.
• Economics, Political Science, and Sociology: Psychology contributes to understanding micro-level economic behaviour (consumer choices), political behaviour (voting patterns, conflict resolution), and the behaviour of individuals within social groups and structures.
• Computer Science: The fields of artificial intelligence and human-computer interaction heavily rely on psychological knowledge of cognitive processes, as they aim to make computers that can mimic the human mind.
• Law and Criminology: Psychology helps the legal system understand issues like witness memory, jury decision-making, and the factors influencing criminal behaviour.
• Mass Communication: Psychology helps media professionals understand audience interests and develop effective communication strategies.

Psychologists At Work

Psychologists apply their knowledge in a variety of "human service areas" to help people cope with life's problems.

• Clinical Psychologists: Specialize in diagnosing and treating mental disorders and behavioural problems through therapy. They work in hospitals, mental health institutions, or in private practice.
• Counselling Psychologists: Work with individuals facing less severe emotional and motivational problems, helping them with career planning, personal adjustments, and coping with challenging situations.
• Community Psychologists: Focus on community mental health, working with agencies and institutions to design programs for prevention and intervention, such as drug rehabilitation or mental health centers.
• School Psychologists: Work within educational systems to support the intellectual, social, and emotional development of students, especially those with special needs.
• Organisational Psychologists: Work in business and industrial settings, focusing on issues like employee training, improving work conditions, enhancing productivity, and personnel selection.

Psychology In Everyday Life

Beyond being an academic subject, psychology offers practical solutions to a wide range of problems, from personal and family issues to larger societal challenges like poverty, violence, and environmental degradation. Many of these problems have deep psychological roots, stemming from unhealthy thought patterns, negative attitudes, and undesirable behaviours.

The knowledge of psychology is also personally relevant. It can help you to:

• Develop a more balanced and positive understanding of yourself.
- Improve your learning and memory through effective study habits.
• Enhance your decision-making skills.
• Manage and reduce stress, particularly exam-related stress.

By applying psychological principles, you can gain valuable insights into your own life and the lives of others, making the study of psychology a rewarding experience from both a personal and social perspective.